The expression of evidentiality in Runyankore-Rukiga

Abstract

This study is a typological investigation of evidentiality, the linguistic encoding of information source, in Runyankore-Rukiga (RR), a Bantu language spoken in south-western Uganda. Guided by Aikhenvald’s (2004) typology, the research explores the semantic, pragmatic, and grammatical aspects of evidentiality in RR, focusing on how the language encodes sources of information, the various categories of information source present in the language and the additional functions that evidential markers or strategies in Runyankore-Rukiga may serve beyond simply indicating information source. Using an observational descriptive methodology, characteristic of typological studies, the research draws on naturally occurring data, supported by elicitation from native speakers and text analysis. The findings reveal that, like most Bantu languages, RR lacks grammaticalized evidential markers but utilizes a range of lexical and grammatical strategies to express information source. Lexical items include perception verbs such as -reeb ‘see’, -hurir ‘hear/feel’, -huumur ‘smell (pleasant)’, as well as speech and cognition verbs like -gir ‘say/tell/think’ and -gamba ‘tell’, which convey direct perception, reported speech, or inferred knowledge. On the grammatical side, evidential meanings are often expressed through tense and aspect, particularly through the use of certain past and progressive forms. For instance, the verb ba ‘be’ in specific past constructions can indicate information acquired indirectly or inferentially. These evidential strategies frequently serve additional functions, including the expression of modality, temporality, and speaker attitude, reflecting the multifunctionality of evidentiality in RR. Overall, this study contributes to typological understandings of evidential systems by showing how RR encodes information source through flexible and overlapping linguistic means, while also addressing the underrepresentation of evidentiality in African language studies.